ABSTRACT
Despite the worldwide effect of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, the underlying mechanisms of fatal viral pneumonia remain elusive. Here, we show that critical COVID-19 is associated with enhanced eosinophil-mediated inflammation when compared to non-critical cases. In addition, we confirm increased T helper (Th)2-biased adaptive immune responses, accompanying overt complement activation, in the critical group. Moreover, enhanced antibody responses and complement activation are associated with disease pathogenesis as evidenced by formation of immune complexes and membrane attack complexes in airways and vasculature of lung biopsies from six fatal cases, as well as by enhanced hallmark gene set signatures of Fcγ receptor (FcγR) signaling and complement activation in myeloid cells of respiratory specimens from critical COVID-19 patients. These results suggest that SARS-CoV-2 infection may drive specific innate immune responses, including eosinophil-mediated inflammation, and subsequent pulmonary pathogenesis via enhanced Th2-biased immune responses, which might be crucial drivers of critical disease in COVID-19 patients.
Subject(s)
Antibodies, Viral/immunology , COVID-19/immunology , Complement System Proteins/immunology , Eosinophils/immunology , Inflammation/immunology , Pneumonia, Viral/immunology , SARS-CoV-2/immunology , Adaptive Immunity , Adult , Aged , Aged, 80 and over , Antigen-Antibody Complex/metabolism , COVID-19/metabolism , COVID-19/virology , Complement Activation , Complement Membrane Attack Complex/metabolism , Eosinophils/virology , Female , Humans , Inflammation/metabolism , Inflammation/virology , Lung Injury/immunology , Lung Injury/pathology , Lung Injury/virology , Male , Middle Aged , Pneumonia, Viral/metabolism , Receptors, IgG/immunology , Receptors, IgG/metabolism , Severity of Illness Index , Signal Transduction , Th2 Cells/immunology , Viral Load , Young AdultABSTRACT
Macrophages play an important role in the innate and adaptive immune responses of organ systems, including the lungs, to particles and pathogens. Cumulative results show that macrophages contribute to the development and progression of acute or chronic inflammatory responses through the secretion of inflammatory cytokines/chemokines and the activation of transcription factors in the pathogenesis of inflammatory lung diseases, such as acute lung injury (ALI), acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), ARDS related to COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)), allergic asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). This review summarizes the functions of macrophages and their associated underlying mechanisms in the development of ALI, ARDS, COVID-19-related ARDS, allergic asthma, COPD, and IPF and briefly introduces the acute and chronic experimental animal models. Thus, this review suggests an effective therapeutic approach that focuses on the regulation of macrophage function in the context of inflammatory lung diseases.